'Battleship Potemkin': Sergei M. Eisenstein and Montage Techniques

'Battleship Potemkin' is a Soviet film released in 1925 to commemorate the 20th anniversary of the "1905 Russian Revolution." Sergei M. Eisenstein drew upon the actual historical event of the "Potemkin uprising" as the blueprint for this second personal feature film, shot with artistic creativity. The film sparked widespread international acclaim upon its release and remains a 'textbook' for film editing techniques in primary film academies worldwide. In 1952, a poll conducted by a Belgian organization with 63 renowned directors ranked 'Battleship Potemkin' as the top among the '12 Best Films of the World.' Moreover, in the 1958 Brussels Film Festival, it was crowned the champion among the '12 Best Films Ever Made.' Director Sergei M. Eisenstein gained international fame with this film, and its innovative use of Montage techniques continues to influence filmmakers today.

Innovation by Sergei M. Eisenstein

The film narrates actual historical events from the 1905 Russian Revolution. At that time, Russia was under Tsarist autocracy, using oppressive means that incited profound discontent among the laborers. The worker strikes intensified, notably on January 9, 1905, when the Tsar brutally suppressed ordinary people, sparking nationwide resistance. The wave of strikes reached the Battleship Potemkin, where numerous sailors were already fed up with their superiors' tyranny. During a hunger strike as a form of protest, they faced violent suppression. In a rage, the sailors seized the Potemkin, but their leader sacrificed himself. When the civilian population in Odessa came to support the Potemkin, they faced ruthless slaughter by the Tsar.

Before 1924, films mainly focused on storytelling. Hollywood's classic narrative method remained dominant despite the emergence of German expressionism, French impressionism, and surrealism in film styles. Only the narrative techniques and innovation in prop backgrounds had changed; there had been no revolution in filmmaking methods. Although Lev Kuleshov had created two Montage films by 1924, they received little attention until 'Battleship Potemkin' premiered, drawing global attention to the film experiments happening in the Soviet Union, namely Soviet Montage.

If Sergei M. Eisenstein's directorial debut, 'Strike,' was a trial run, 'Battleship Potemkin' demonstrated matured skills. Hollywood considered the film an art of storytelling, while German and French filmmakers saw it as a visual art. Sergei M. Eisenstein, however, viewed the film as an art of editing. His understanding of film editing stemmed from the work of the renowned Hollywood director D.W. Griffith. From 'The Birth of a Nation' to 'Intolerance,' Griffith experimented with film editing, expanding its scope. However, Griffith's understanding of editing could have conveyed precise emotions and information to the audience more comprehensively. In 'Battleship Potemkin,' Sergei M. Eisenstein transcended the constraints of story and emotion; editing was not just a technique to piece together scenes but a means to guide viewers' psychological associations — this is the fundamental essence of Montage.

Renowned French film critic Georges Sadoul once praised this film without reserve: "In the realm of silent films, besides Charlie Chaplin's works, no other film can match 'Battleship Potemkin.'" Such high acclaim is because Sergei M. Eisenstein pioneered Montage techniques in this film. In his view, a film's allure, like other art forms, arises from conflict. Placing two shots side by side creates conflict, and friction generates dramatic tension, a new understanding in the viewer's mind. Therefore, in 'Battleship Potemkin,' the plot does not create dramatic conflicts; instead, the essence of the drama lies in the "audience's comprehension," achieved through editing.

Montage Techniques

Montage techniques can be categorized into three major types: narrative, expressive, and rational. However, such rigid categorization is only partially scientific since some Montage shots may possess multiple functions, not limited to one category. Sergei M. Eisenstein employed not just one Montage technique in 'Battleship Potemkin,' including metaphorical Montage, Montage of attraction, and more. This explains why, despite the film's outdated themes, filmmakers continue to study and explore it. Film stories might have temporal and era limitations, but film techniques possess enduring vitality.

Metaphorical Montage, a subtype of expressive Montage, is more concealed and often creates metaphorical effects through props or other shots. Metaphors generally serve two functions: irony and symbolism. In 'Battleship Potemkin,' Sergei M. Eisenstein used two sets of images, serving the roles of irony and metaphor. Metaphorical Montage employs relatively simple filming techniques to emphasize the theme of metaphors.

For instance, when sailors on the Potemkin discovered the meat was infested with maggots, they immediately reported it to the captain, who sent a doctor to examine it. Notably, when the doctor arrives, he wears glasses but removes them before the examination, claiming there's nothing wrong with the meat. After the test, he puts his glasses back on. Through this simple sequence of putting on and taking off glasses, the scene depicts the authorities' 'blind eye' to the commoners' plight, satirizing their 'pretended blindness.'

Symbolically, after the Odessa Steps massacre, the Battleship Potemkin retaliates by shelling the authorities' courtyard. Sergei M. Eisenstein quickly edits three images of lions: sleeping, reclining, and awake. These lions aren't just decorative elements; they represent the general public's transition from silently enduring the Tsar's cruel rule to becoming thoroughly outraged and rebelling. Sergei M. Eisenstein's simple filming techniques conveyed intense emotional expressions. The image of the "roaring stone lion" became a classic in film history, perfectly fitting the storyline and enhancing emotional impact. Its brilliance lies in the inherent logic between these edits.

Another remarkable example is from a black-and-white film, 'Battleship Potemkin,' where Sergei M. Eisenstein introduced the spectacle of a waving red flag. After the sailors overthrew the brutal rule, a red flag was hoisted on the ship. Films generally ran at 24 frames per second, and Sergei M. Eisenstein had professional engineers hand-color each edge of the flag red, an enormous undertaking at the time. The red flag symbolizes revolution, embodying complete resistance. The raised flag brought courage and hope to the people onshore, significantly elevating the film's theme.

Besides these two Montage techniques, the most iconic one in 'Battleship Potemkin' is the Montage of attraction, and the sequence of "The Odessa Steps" has become one of the most classic segments in world cinema history. We will delve specifically into this section for detailed analysis.

The Odessa Steps

The technique used in "The Odessa Steps" sequence is the Montage of attraction. It engages viewers emotionally and psychologically. When combined, seemingly random and independent segments seem chaotic but guide the audience to the director's theme. By editing shots with the ultimate goal in mind, the audience experiences intensified emotions when two seemingly unrelated images are combined. "The Odessa Steps" depicts the Tsar sending troops to crush ordinary people supporting the Potemkin sailors.

The sequence begins at 48:00 and runs until 54:50, lasting 6 minutes and 50 seconds. According to later research, it comprises 155 shots, averaging 3 seconds per shot. Due to the rapid switching of images, viewers experience intense oppression. Even today, revisiting the work generates a tense viewing experience, demonstrating the film's and editing's allure. As soldiers appear, civilians scatter, and the contrast between well-armed soldiers and unarmed civilians intensifies. After soldiers open fire, the continuous editing montage mainly serves to illustrate the number of murdered civilians.

Sergei M. Eisenstein highlights a severe atmosphere of brutality by continuously intercutting fleeing civilians and advancing soldiers. Combining the panoramic view of running civilians with specific individual character shots showcases that no one escapes the carnage. Several representative characters stand out: a mother whose child is killed as she sees her child fall in a pool of blood. Through close-up shots, the director depicts the character's shocked expression. Then, cutting to the child being trampled and the mother's mental breakdown, Sergei M. Eisenstein juxtaposes the mother's close-up shot with the mid-range shot of the troops, emphasizing the soldiers' cold-bloodedness.

Another notable scene is when a mother pushes a baby carriage; after she is shot, the carriage slides down the steps. The sliding carriage, the running crowd, the repeated intercutting of worried onlookers concerned about the baby's safety, and the brutal repression on the Odessa Steps, all juxtaposed, heighten the audience's worry for the baby. Finally, the baby is flung from the carriage as soldiers kill people. By combining two shots, the director expresses the true intent: although the baby was thrown, it was essentially destroyed by the soldiers.

From the oppression of the Odessa Steps to its conclusion, all shots don't follow a strict chronological or spatial sequence. In reality, these scattered shots might have only lasted a few tens of seconds, but Sergei M. Eisenstein extended them to nearly 7 minutes. Thus, Sergei M. Eisenstein also expanded the role of Montage: elongating time. Raising time intensifies the portrayal of the Tsar's brutal rule, reaching the film's emotional climax through extended emotional progression. Through adept Montage techniques, Sergei M. Eisenstein created a unique film style. The soldiers' oppressive actions dominate the frame, creating a unique aesthetic.

The Impact of Montage

Sergei M. Eisenstein passed away at 50, leaving behind a wealth of directorial works and the Montage style that transformed film creation. His filmmaking and theoretical developments were parallel, using theory to guide design and employing innovation to provide feedback to the idea. His experimentation with various Montage techniques aimed to create maximum dramatic effects by juxtaposing entirely different shots, evoking resonance in the audience. Sergei M. Eisenstein established a novel editing technique, setting a classic example for future filmmakers; film stories may become obsolete, but Montage techniques remain timeless."